Material development for Chinese heritage language learners A study of student perceptions
This study investigates the perspectives of 28 Chinese heritage language
(CHL) learners enrolled in a first-year heritage-track Chinese course at a
private U.S. university. Using grounded theory methodology, the analysis
identifies four major areas of insight: learners’ diverse, identity-driven goals;
critical evaluations of instructional materials; preferred features for an ideal
CHL textbook; and thematic interests in classroom topics. Findings reveal
that CHL learners seek to reconnect with their heritage, strengthen overall
language proficiency — including speaking — and acquire formal language
skills to support academic and professional aspirations. While they
appreciate the structure of the widely used L2-oriented textbook Integrated
Chinese, they find its content to be too basic or misaligned with their needs.
In contrast, supplementary materials are seen as more relevant but often too
difficult without sufficient scaffolding. Learners envision an ideal textbook
that includes advanced vocabulary and idiomatic expressions, culturally
rich content, and formal language, supported by a scaffolded and userfriendly design. They are most engaged by topics reflecting real-life
experiences, traditional and modern Chinese culture, and themes that
affirm their bicultural identities. The voices of these learners underscore the
need for recalibrated pedagogical materials responsive to their hybrid
identities and linguistic profiles. The study highlights the importance of
learner-centered design in CHL curriculum development.
Keywords: heritage language education, Chinese heritage language
learners, material development, instructional materials, student perceptions
- Introduction
In the past two decades, heritage language (HL) education has emerged as a growing field of scholarly interest within the broader landscape of second language
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acquisition and bilingual education (Kondo-Brown, 2003; Carreira & Kagan,
2011, 2018). As the United States grows in linguistic and cultural diversity, educators and researchers have begun to pay greater attention to the unique needs and
experiences of HL learners, defined as students who grow up in homes where a
non-majority language is spoken and who possess varying degrees of proficiency
and connection to that language (Valdés, 2001; He, 2010). Among the many heritage languages taught in North America, Chinese holds a particularly prominent position due to the rapid growth of Chinese immigrant communities and
the rising global significance of China. Consequently, the number of Chinese heritage language (CHL) learners enrolling in K–16 educational programs has been
steadily rising (Li & Duff, 2008; Luo, et al, 2019; Wen, 2024).
Despite this upward trend, the field of CHL education faces several persistent
challenges, particularly in pedagogy and curriculum development. While a growing body of research has examined the linguistic profiles, affective factors, and
identity development of CHL learners (He & Xiao, 2008; Xiang, 2016; Song &
Turner, 2024), relatively little empirical work has focused on the development
and evaluation of instructional materials tailored specifically for this learner population. Many CHL programs continue to rely on adapted materials originally
designed for second language (L2) learners, which often fail to meet the linguistic,
cultural, and affective needs of heritage learners (Kagan & Dillion, 2008; Luo,
et al, 2019).
Although recent years have seen a proliferation of textbooks and resources
marketed for CHL instruction and scholars have offered valuable pedagogical
insights and design principles for HL materials (Lynch, 2003; Kagan, 2005; Liu,
et al, 2024), much of this work has been driven by teacher perspectives or theoretical frameworks rather than empirical data from the learners themselves. In other
words, there remains a critical gap in the literature: the voices of CHL learners —
the very individuals for whom these materials are intended — have been largely
underrepresented in scholarly discussions of material development. This oversight limits our understanding of how learners perceive existing materials, what
they find engaging or alienating, and how their needs might inform more effective
instructional design.
This study seeks to bridge that gap by investigating CHL learners’ perceptions
of both standard and supplementary learning materials used in a first-year
heritage-track Chinese course at a private U.S. university. Through a qualitative
analysis of student reflections, this research explores what CHL learners identify
as effective or insufficient in their learning materials. It aims to provide a learnercentered perspective that can inform future material development and pedagogical practice in CHL education. By foregrounding student voices, this study
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contributes to a more nuanced understanding of how materials can be better
aligned with the unique goals, backgrounds, and expectations of CHL learners. - Literature review
2.1 Defining CHL learners
The term “heritage language learner” has gained widespread recognition in the
field of applied linguistics, yet it remains a contested concept with scholars offering multiple interpretations shaped by sociolinguistic and geopolitical contexts
(Polinsky & Kagan, 2007; Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003). These definitions generally
coalesce around two primary frameworks: a broad socio-affiliative model and a
narrower linguistic-experiential model.
Under the broad model, HL learners include individuals who identify with a
particular ethnolinguistic group and are motivated to learn the language of their
heritage, even if they did not acquire it in early childhood (Fishman, 2001). The
narrower model, which is more commonly used in research and pedagogy, refers
to learners who have had exposure to the language in the home environment and
possess some functional ability in it — particularly in receptive or spoken modes
(Carreira & Kagan, 2011). Valdés (2001) articulates this definition as referring to
those who were raised in homes where a language other than English was spoken
and who are, to varying degrees, bilingual.
This study adopts the narrower framework in its focus on CHL learners in
U.S. higher education. CHL learners are typically individuals who were exposed
to Mandarin or other Chinese varieties (such as Cantonese, Hokkien, or Shanghainese) in familial settings and who speak or understand the language to some
extent. However, they often lack formal instruction in literacy and academic registers (He, 2006). Their bilingual development is shaped by factors such as language shift, community support, and access to HL schooling during childhood.
It is important to note that “Chinese” refers not to a single language but to
a complex family of regional language varieties — many of which are mutually
unintelligible (Li, 1994). While Mandarin (Putonghua) is the official language of
instruction in most Chinese language programs in the U.S., CHL learners may
come from households where other varieties are spoken. However, due to the
widespread availability of Mandarin-language media and its status as a lingua
franca in Chinese-speaking communities worldwide, most CHL learners are at
least passively familiar with Mandarin. Consequently, university-level HL Chinese programs generally use Mandarin as the standard variety for instruction,
Material development for Chinese heritage language learners [3]
placing students with diverse linguistic backgrounds into a shared heritage track
curriculum.
2.2 Linguistic, cultural, and psychological dimensions of CHL learners
CHL learners exhibit distinctive linguistic profiles shaped by their early exposure
to the language in informal contexts, typically within the home. Research has consistently shown that CHL learners outperform traditional L2 learners in listening
and speaking but often have significant gaps in reading and writing due to minimal or inconsistent exposure to formal instruction (Campbell & Rosenthal, 2000;
Valdés, 2001). Their lexical and grammatical knowledge tends to be domainspecific, rooted in everyday conversation rather than academic or professional
discourse. As a result, they may struggle to navigate formal or written registers,
particularly in environments that demand academic literacy in Chinese.
Culturally, CHL learners maintain strong connections to their heritage
through family interactions, community involvement, and ethnic traditions. They
often arrive in the classroom with a foundational understanding of cultural
norms, values, and practices. However, many also express a desire to deepen this
cultural awareness through structured learning. Scholars have noted that CHL
learners are more likely to engage with instructional materials that reflect their
lived experiences and cultural heritage — such as topics related to Chinese festivals, intergenerational dynamics, or cultural history (Kagan, 2012; He, 2006).
From a psychological standpoint, CHL learners are frequently motivated by
personal and familial reasons. Unlike foreign language learners who may pursue Chinese for economic or academic goals, CHL learners are often driven by
a desire to reclaim or strengthen their cultural identity. This intrinsic motivation
is grounded in a sense of duty, pride, or emotional attachment to their heritage
(Lee, 2015). Carreira and Kagan (2011) argue that for many HL learners, the classroom serves not only as a site of linguistic acquisition but also as a space for identity exploration and affirmation. The desire to communicate more effectively with
family members, access cultural knowledge, and feel authentically connected to a
broader diasporic community often shapes how CHL learners approach language
learning.
Therefore, the CHL learner represents a distinct population with specific linguistic competencies, cultural sensibilities, and identity-based motivations. Recognizing these dimensions is essential for developing instructional approaches —
and particularly learning materials — that respond meaningfully to their educational needs.
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2.3 Materials for CHL learners
Although the field of CHL education continues to face a shortage of instructional
materials specifically designed for CHL learners, a few textbooks have been developed to serve this population. In a national survey of college-level U.S. CHL programs, Luo et al. (2019) identified five CHL-specific textbooks in use across U.S.
college-level heritage-track courses: A Primer for Advanced Beginners of Chinese
(Li, et al, 2004); Oh, China! (Chou, et al, 1997/2012); Me and China (He, et al,
2006); Keep Our Heritage (Yu, et al, 2019); and Reading China: A Panorama of
Life, Culture, and Society (Kang, et al, 2008). Among these, A Primer for Advanced
Beginners of Chinese was reported as the most commonly used while Integrated
Chinese, a textbook designed for non-heritage learners, was also frequently
adopted in CHL programs. Despite the availability of these resources, the majority of instructors surveyed expressed dissatisfaction with the content and structure of existing materials. More recently, a new textbook specifically designed for
beginning CHL learners has been published: Modern Chinese for Heritage Beginners: Stories About Us (Liu et al., 2023), offering a promising addition to the limited pool of targeted instructional resources.
Luo et al. (2019) summarizes seven key features that instructors identified as
essential for an ideal CHL textbook: (1) inclusion of authentic materials; (2) a
strong focus on literacy development; (3) integration of relevant cultural content; (4) engaging and relatable topics; (5) ample language input; (6) flexibility
to accommodate diverse learner backgrounds; and (7) explicit instruction on linguistic register and genre. Instructors also highlighted the burden of having to
supplement existing materials extensively, given their inadequacies in motivating students and addressing learner diversity. Notably, even textbooks marketed
for CHL learners were sometimes criticized for lack of interactivity, unrelatable
content, or politically sensitive themes that alienated American-born Chinese students.
Building upon these findings, Liu et al. (2024) offers a more comprehensive
framework for material development tailored to CHL learners. The researchers’
suggestions include adopting a top-down instructional design that introduces
meaningful content early on, rather than relying solely on bottom-up grammar
drills. They advocate for selecting texts that are intellectually stimulating and
age-appropriate for college students, rather than overly simplified cultural introductions. In terms of content, Liu et al. emphasizes the need for diversity and representation — textbooks should reflect not only mainstream Chinese culture but
also the diasporic experiences of Chinese Americans, regional linguistic diversity
(e.g., dialects), and multifaceted identity issues.
Material development for Chinese heritage language learners [5]
Liu et al. also recommends creating space in materials for students to explore
and share their personal and family narratives, drawing on Moll’s (1992) “funds of
knowledge” framework. Such an approach would affirm learners’ identities, support emotional engagement, and foster critical thinking. Additionally, the authors
caution against treating CHL learners as a monolithic group and encourage textbook developers to acknowledge the intra-group variability in language proficiency, cultural familiarity, and personal goals. - Research questions
Existing studies contribute valuable insights into the development of instructional
materials for CHL learners. However, most of this research has been conducted
from the perspectives of teachers, curriculum designers, and scholars. What
remains underexplored is how CHL learners themselves perceive the materials
used in their classrooms — what they find helpful, unengaging, or lacking. To
address this gap, the present study centers the voices of CHL learners enrolled
in a first-year heritage-track Chinese course at a private university in the United
States.
By analyzing these learners’ reflections, the study aims to better understand
their educational needs and preferences, and to offer pedagogical implications
grounded in their lived experiences. The following research questions guide the
investigation: - What are the learning goals of CHL learners enrolled in a first-year heritagetrack Chinese course at a private U.S. university?
- How do these CHL learners perceive the Integrated Chinese textbook and the
supplementary materials used in their course? - According to these learners, what are the essential features of an ideal textbook designed for CHL learners?
- Based on learner perspectives, what kinds of topics are most likely to engage
CHL students in a heritage-track Chinese classroom? - Methods
4.1 Participants and background
This study involved 28 students enrolled in two sections of a first-year heritagetrack Chinese course at a private university in the United States. At this institution,
two years of language study are required for graduation, and heritage-track Chi-
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nese fulfills this requirement. Of the 28 participants, 13 were enrolled in Section 1
and 15 enrolled in Section 2. Both sections were taught by the same instructor. The
sample consisted of 12 female and 16 male students, ranging in age from 18 to 20
years. The majority (24 out of 28) were first-year students, with the remaining four
in their sophomore year.
Participants reported their home language as either a variety of Chinese
(n = 12) or a combination of Chinese and English (n = 16). When asked to specify
the variety of Chinese, most participants (n = 26) reported home exposure to
Mandarin Chinese. The remaining two students grew up primarily exposed to
regional Chinese dialects — Shanghainese and Cantonese — spoken by grandparents. Although their exposure to Mandarin at home was limited, they reported
some familiarity through media sources.
The primary textbook used in the course was Integrated Chinese, Level 1,
which was taught at an accelerated pace compared to courses designed for nonheritage language learners. To address the specific linguistic and cultural needs
of CHL learners, the instructor supplemented the core curriculum with a series
of materials specifically compiled for this learner population. The supplementary
materials were characterized by the following key features:
Content: The materials addressed topics closely connected to CHL learners’
everyday lives, ethnic identity, and connections to Chinese culture, society, and
literature.
Systematic Character Instruction: The curriculum emphasized the systematic
learning of commonly used radicals and high-frequency characters. Each unit
introduced a curated set of characters — grouped by shared radicals, phonetic elements, or word-formation principles — within concise, meaningful texts. These
were reinforced through extended readings, comprehension tasks, and characterfocused exercises.
Writing: Each main text served as a model for formal writing in a specific genre or
style. Students were required to produce written passages emulating these models,
receiving focused instruction in higher-register vocabulary and stylistic conventions.
Reading: The reading components — including main texts, supplementary readings, and comprehension exercises — were thematically integrated and designed
to enhance comprehension through vocabulary recycling and varied contextual
presentations.
Grammar: Instruction targeted grammar features that CHL learners commonly
found challenging, with explicit explanations and focused practice embedded
within each unit.
Material development for Chinese heritage language learners [7]
Vocabulary: Special attention was given to high-register vocabulary extending
beyond everyday conversational use. Where appropriate, units incorporated frequently used four-character idiomatic expressions (成语), enhancing learners’
lexical range and cultural competence.
For each unit in Integrated Chinese, a set of supplementary materials thematically
connected to that unit was provided. Typically, one unit of Integrated Chinese was
covered in two class meetings, followed by a separate class session devoted to the
supplementary materials. Students were expected to review these materials before
class, and one class meeting per unit was dedicated to working with them. Each
supplementary packet included a main text, a section on grammar explanation, a
“Character Explanation and Expansion” component, an additional short reading,
and a set of writing tasks. For example, for the Integrated Chinese unit on “family,”
the main supplementary text was “幸福的一家” (A Happy Family):
幸福的一家
我出生在一个大家庭，算不上富裕，但非常幸福。我家有五口人：爸爸、
妈妈、哥哥、妹妹和我。我爸爸是一位成功的大学教授，每天忙于科学研
究。妈妈是家庭主妇，典型的贤妻良母。哥哥是一名优秀的软件工程师，
已经结婚了。他和嫂子非常相爱，有一对聪明、可爱的儿女。妹妹还在读
初中，自信、独立，对许多事情都有自己的看法。每当逢年过节的时候，
我们一家人高高兴兴，热闹无比。俗话说：家和万事兴。真心希望世界上
每个家庭都能幸福美满。
This text introduced vocabulary and a formal tone of greater sophistication than
the dialogues presented in Integrated Chinese. Idiomatic expressions such as “贤
妻良母” (“virtuous wife and loving mother”) and “家和万事兴” (“family harmony leads to success”) not only expose students to more advanced vocabulary
and a higher register, but also provide insight into cultural values and perspectives. The “Character Explanation and Expansion” section for this unit focuses
on associative compound characters (会意字), highlighting 11 examples that are
underlined and bolded in the main text. A short additional reading, “有趣的会
意字” (“Interesting Associative Characters”), further expands on this topic. For
the writing component, students were asked to model their writing on the style of
the main text and choose from three prompts: (1) write a passage about their own
family (at least 100 characters); (2) write a passage describing their ideal family at
age 45 (at least 100 characters); or (3) write a passage about a classmate’s family
based on an interview (at least 100 characters). Each student was also expected to
present their written passage orally in front of the class.
[8] Han Luo
4.2 Instruments
This study employed a qualitative research design. Data were collected through an
open-ended survey consisting of nine essay-style questions, which the instructor
posted on the course’s learning management system during the final weeks of the
semester. Students were informed that their feedback would contribute to improving instructional materials for heritage-track Chinese language courses. Participation was voluntary, the survey was anonymous, and no incentives were offered.
From the two course sections, 28 students chose to complete the survey, and their
responses were considered valid for analysis.
The survey included the following nine open-ended questions: - Why are you learning Chinese?
- What do you hope to achieve in this Chinese class? What are your goals for
the course? - What specific aspects of Chinese would you like to focus on in this class? (e.g.,
characters, grammar, vocabulary, reading, writing, Chinese culture, idioms,
etc.) - What are your thoughts on the textbook Integrated Chinese, Level 1? Please
comment on its advantages and/or disadvantages. - Do you think Integrated Chinese meets your learning needs? Why or why not?
- What are your thoughts on the supplementary materials? Please comment on
their advantages and/or disadvantages. - Do you think the supplementary materials meet your learning needs? Why or
why not? - In your opinion, what are the essential features of an ideal textbook for Chinese heritage learners?
- What types of topics would motivate you to engage more deeply in learning
Chinese? Please list specific topics of interest.
Student responses to Questions 1 through 3 were analyzed to address Research
Question 1, which explored the learning goals of CHL learners. Responses to
Questions 4 through 7 were used to address Research Question 2, which examined students’ perceptions of the core and supplementary course materials.
Responses to Question 8 were analyzed to answer Research Question 3, which
focused on identifying desired features of an ideal textbook for CHL learners.
Finally, responses to Question 9 informed Research Question 4, which investigated CHL learners’ preferences for engaging and relevant topics.
Material development for Chinese heritage language learners [9]
4.3 Data analysis methods
To analyze the qualitative data, a grounded-theory approach (Strauss & Corbin,
1990) was employed to analyze and interpret student responses. Grounded theory,
first introduced by Glaser and Strauss (1967), is a widely adopted methodology for
deriving meaningful, data-driven categories from qualitative data. It is defined as
“a general methodology for developing theory that is grounded in data systematically gathered and analyzed” (Strauss & Corbin, 1990, p. 158).
Following the principles of grounded theory, the analysis began without any
preconceived hypotheses. The primary researcher and a second coder — an experienced colleague with extensive expertise in heritage language education and
qualitative research, though not involved in teaching Chinese — jointly developed
the coding scheme. To establish an initial coding framework, both coders independently analyzed responses from a randomly selected subset of three participants (3 out of 28). Based on this initial coding, a preliminary codebook was
constructed. Coding discrepancies were discussed in detail until full agreement
was reached, and the codebook was refined accordingly.
After establishing this coding framework, the primary researcher applied the
finalized codes to the remainder of the data. Throughout this process, any ambiguities or uncertainties were brought back to the second coder for discussion.
These consultations continued until consensus was achieved for all cases. This
iterative process ensured that the emergent categories accurately reflected the
data. The coding procedure focused particularly on identifying students’ motivations and perceived needs, and the codes were repeatedly refined and organized
into broader conceptual themes. Consistent with Constas (1992), each theme was
assigned to one and only one category. - Results
5.1 Research question 1: What are CHL learners’ learning goals?
An in-depth analysis of responses from 28 first-year CHL learners enrolled in a
heritage-track Chinese course at a private U.S. university reveals three primary
learning goals: (1) reconnecting with heritage and family; (2) developing comprehensive linguistic proficiency, including reading, writing, and speaking; and
(3) acquiring formal language competence to enhance academic and professional
opportunities. These goals reflect the complex sociocultural positioning of CHL
learners, who often navigate hybrid linguistic and cultural identities.
[10] Han Luo
First and foremost, a significant number of participants expressed a strong
desire to reconnect with their cultural roots and strengthen relationships with
family members. Many were born to Chinese immigrant parents or immigrated
at a young age but were raised in predominantly English-speaking environments,
resulting in limited communicative competence with relatives. Student 5
remarked, “I feel as though there is a gap between myself and my relatives because
of my inability to communicate and to understand Chinese customs.” Similarly,
Student 12 noted, “I want to learn Chinese so I can get to know my family more
and talk to them.” For others, language learning was seen as a way to preserve and
honor their heritage: “I am the first generation of my family to come to America and I don’t want to lose the culture and heritage that my family has passed
down to me” (Student 9). In addition to reconnecting with family, some learners
voiced a desire to be accepted as part of the native Chinese-speaking community
and to conceal markers of their Chinese-American identity. Student 3 hoped to
“improve my fluency to the point where my American accent is extremely nominal and barely recognizable,” while Student 4 aspired to “hold a formal conversation and achieve a level of competence that would make it difficult for others to
tell I grew up in the States.”
Second, learners consistently emphasized their desire to improve Chinese
language skills across all domains, particularly in reading, writing, and speaking.
Although many of the students could understand and speak Mandarin in domestic settings, they often lacked literacy and formal register exposure. Student 13
stated, “I have grown up speaking it, but am not literate,” and Student 19 added,
“I have always known how to speak and listen fluently, but I never knew how to
write and I can only read a little.” Many expressed goals such as “being able to read
a Chinese newspaper or basic articles” (Student 1) or “write small paragraphs”
(Student 17). In addition to academic purposes, students cited practical motivations for improving reading skills — particularly for travel and daily navigation in
Chinese-speaking regions. For example, Student 2 explained, “I want to be able to
go around China and read all the signs and not get lost,” and Student 16 similarly
hoped to “read most of the signs, menus, etc., when I go back to China.”
While CHL learners are often assumed to have strong speaking skills, many
participants noted speaking as an important learning goal, especially in broader
and more formal contexts. Student 23 stated, “I want to learn to speak Chinese
more naturally and fluently, and with more confidence.” Student 14 shared a similar goal: “I want to be able to speak with my grandparents and mother on a variety of topics.” Others sought depth and fluency, as reflected in Student 13’s desire
to “be more comfortable speaking more deeply… with grandparents or parents/
friends.”
Material development for Chinese heritage language learners [11]
Finally, many of the students tied their language learning to academic and
career advancement, viewing Chinese proficiency as a strategic asset in a globalized world. Student 3 emphasized, “I feel that Chinese is becoming ever more
important. I hope that Chinese will improve my future job prospects.” Student
20 noted, “Being bilingual [is] a desirable characteristic for my profession,” while
Student 28 highlighted both personal and professional motivations: “To improve
Chinese reading/writing & speaking proficiency for job reasons and for personal
fulfillment.” Learners also expressed a strong interest in acquiring more formal
and academic registers of Chinese — an area often underdeveloped in heritage
speakers’ home environments. Student 19 articulated the goal of learning “a more
formal way to [do] writing and more idioms I can use,” and Student 17 emphasized
the importance of being able “to learn how to write Chinese and speak formally.”
As revealed by the data, CHL learners’ goals are multifaceted and reflect a
blend of familial, personal, academic, and professional motivations. The results
also reveal that CHL learners are often integratively motivated, seeking not only
functional competence but also cultural affirmation and identity connection. The
findings suggest that instructional design for CHL learners should include culturally relevant materials, scaffolding for balanced skill development, and meaningful opportunities for students to apply language in both personal and professional
domains.
5.2 Research question 2: How do CHL learners perceive the Integrated
Chinese textbook and the supplementary materials used in their course?
Students’ evaluations of the Integrated Chinese textbook and its accompanying
supplementary materials reveal a critical yet balanced understanding of their
learning experiences. While many of the students appreciated the textbook’s structure, clarity, and utility for reinforcing foundational grammar and vocabulary,
they frequently pointed out its limitations in addressing the unique needs of CHL
learners. In contrast, the supplementary materials were often praised for offering
more advanced and authentic language use, though the steep difficulty level was a
recurring concern.
Several students found the Integrated Chinese textbook helpful for reinforcing
common vocabulary, grammatical patterns, and foundational literacy skills. Student 1 highlighted that the “vocabulary in the book is very effective in that the
book focuses on commonly used words” and praised the pacing, noting that the
textbook offered a comfortable tempo. Student 5 emphasized the accessibility of
the textbook: “Its sections are very user friendly and accessible, and the storylines keep it interesting.” Others appreciated the formatting and organization of
[12] Han Luo
the text. Student 13, for example, noted the “large characters” and “dialogue layout,” which made it easier to follow and digest.
However, other students criticized the textbook for being too basic and insufficiently tailored to heritage learners. A good number of students felt that it spent
too much time covering grammar and vocabulary that they had already mastered
through home exposure. Student 3 commented, “It spends a lot of time trying to
teach us grammar and simple phrases that we as heritage speakers already know
how to use.” Student 8 echoed this view, stating the book included “too simple
characters, vocabulary, and grammar,” and criticized its lack of idioms and cultural depth. Student 17 remarked, “It’s too easy and does not teach me formal
Chinese,” reflecting a broader frustration with the textbook’s inability to provide
content relevant to the advanced receptive or spoken skills of CHL learners.
In contrast, the supplementary materials were frequently viewed as more relevant, challenging, and engaging. Students appreciated the inclusion of idioms,
advanced vocabulary, and examples of formal writing. Student 1 remarked that
the supplementary materials “have an advanced structure that can help improve
speaking and writing abilities,” while Student 13 noted that they provided “really
good models for writing” and “good examples of how to use idioms in context.”
Student 10 also found them valuable for learning new vocabulary: “They were
really helpful with expanding my vocabulary and introducing idioms because
they gave a context for new vocab words and phrases.”
Yet, the very features that made the supplementary materials effective also
contributed to their perceived difficulty. Nearly all students mentioned that the
materials were “too hard,” “dense,” or “overwhelming.” Student 3 stated, “There is
a large number of vocabulary words that there isn’t sufficient time to fully understand and learn how to use each phrase.” Student 7 shared a similar concern: “One
of the major problems with it being too hard is that we are only memorizing the
characters for short term for dictation.” Student 9 admitted, “Although I am getting slightly better at grammar, many of the phrases or formal language used in
the supplementary materials leave my brain because they’re never used.” Others
described the materials as “very challenging” (Student 23), “extremely difficult to
digest” (Student 12), or “too complicated to retain” (Student 2).
Some students offered more nuanced critiques, recognizing the benefits of
the supplementary materials while acknowledging the limitations. Student 5
remarked, “The supplementary materials are very tedious and difficult to read,
and the vocabulary is hard to understand without an instructor present. That
being said, I think it provides many useful phrases and ideas that would be said in
an everyday context.” Student 18 concluded that “the supplementary materials are
obviously superior to the textbook in terms of application but again, the pace is
far too accelerated to feasibly learn/retain the sheer quantity of new vocabulary.”
Material development for Chinese heritage language learners [13]
The perceived gap in difficulty between the textbook and the supplementary
materials was particularly striking. Student 12 noted, “It is a lot more difficult than
the textbook. The jump between the two in terms of difficulty is high. The supplementary materials are useful if we have more time to study them.” Several students proposed more scaffolding and better pacing. Student 19 suggested limiting
the number of idioms per reading to “one to two” to aid retention. Others, like
Student 20, called for more explanation: “There are concepts within the supplementary passages that could require further explanation.” This view was echoed
by many other students, who commented that some of the vocabulary and idioms
in the supplementary readings were too difficult to grasp without further support.
Despite these challenges, many students recognized the importance of using
both resources. Student 15 viewed the supplementary materials as offering “more
diversified terms in categories that are typically considered beginner categories,”
and Student 27 believed they provided “more advanced vocabulary that will help
to speak and read Chinese at a higher level.” The ideal approach, according to Student 1, would be to use the supplementary texts to “complement” Integrated Chinese, not replace it.
Ultimately, students view Integrated Chinese as a useful starting point that
provides foundational grammar and vocabulary, but one that lacks the linguistic
depth, cultural richness, and formal register desired by CHL learners. Conversely,
the supplementary materials are seen as valuable for developing academic and
advanced language skills but are often overwhelming due to their pace and volume. A more effective instructional approach may lie in a balanced integration
of both resources — retaining the clarity and accessibility of Integrated Chinese
while thoughtfully incorporating scaffolded supplementary materials that challenge students without sacrificing retention. Better sequencing, enhanced explanation, and more time for reinforcement would help bridge the gap between these
two resources and support the long-term development of heritage learners’ language proficiency.
5.3 Research question 3: What are the essential features of an ideal textbook
designed for CHL learners?
Responses from the participants reveal a shared, learner-informed vision of what
an ideal textbook should entail. Drawing on grounded theory analysis of their
written reflections, five key features emerge: (1) inclusion of sophisticated vocabulary and idiomatic expressions, (2) cultural relevance and real-world application,
(3) opportunities for formal and academic language development, (4) scaffolded
structure and repetition for long-term retention, and (5) accessible and engaging
layout.
[14] Han Luo
Advanced vocabulary and idioms
The CHL learners surveyed consistently emphasized the importance of challenging vocabulary that includes idioms, formal phrases, and high-frequency academic language. Student 13 proposed that an ideal textbook should integrate
“vocabulary, grammar, idioms, [and] Chinese culture.” Echoing this sentiment,
Student 19 prioritized “vocabulary, idioms, formality.” Students often found that
their existing spoken fluency needed to be complemented with richer written
input to improve formal expression. Student 3 noted that such a textbook should
include “the formal teaching that many of us did not receive from our parents.”
Moreover, learners highlighted the importance of idiomatic language in elevating their language use and aligning it with that of educated native speakers.
Student 1 stressed the value of “examples, especially when using idioms,” while
Student 13 expressed a desire for more “examples of how to use idioms in context.”
Real-world and cultural relevance
Many of the learners articulated a desire for materials that reflect not only linguistic proficiency but also cultural depth. Student 12 suggested that an ideal textbook
should “teach us the basis in terms of reading and writing” while also integrating “more on the culture of Chinese.” Others wanted stronger historical and social
grounding. Student 22 proposed materials “like the supplementary materials, with
lessons of culture and history included,” while Student 20 recommended including “actual newspaper/novel/magazine excerpts” and “more historical knowledge
on how the Chinese language was developed.”
Students also desired topics that reflect their lived experiences as heritage
speakers growing up in the U.S. and interacting with both Chinese and American
cultural environments. Student 3 suggested learning “pop culture phrases, jokes,
and references” to better connect with peers in China, while Student 24 expressed
interest in “how common people greet/talk to one another, i.e. their formality/
informality of language, tones, patterns of speech.”
Formal and academic language development
Many of the CHL learners reported that while they could navigate casual speech,
they struggled with formal registers of Chinese. As such, they desired a textbook
that could help bridge this gap. Student 6 highlighted the need for “a lot of formal
writing examples and vocabulary,” and Student 17 expressed the goal “to learn
how to write Chinese and speak formally.” Similarly, Student 27 emphasized the
importance of improving their ability to “speak Chinese more formally.”
Material development for Chinese heritage language learners [15]
This focus on formal language was often linked to the students’ academic and
professional goals. Several respondents noted that current textbooks did not adequately prepare them for professional settings or formal communication. Student
16, for example, called for “more formal vocab and phrases,” particularly in the
context of understanding formal media like Chinese news reports.
Scaffolded structure and review for retention
A frequently mentioned concern was the need for a well-structured textbook
that allows vocabulary and grammar to build progressively over time. Student 1
emphasized the importance of “building off of previous lessons so you don’t forget the vocabulary that you’ve learned.” Student 10 similarly observed that new
vocabulary is often “not incorporated in the other exercises or workbook problems,” making them difficult to retain. Student 7 suggested a textbook that regularly “connect[s] the things I’ve already learned so I can memorize long term,”
describing this as “the major goal of a Chinese heritage [textbook].”
Learners also desired better alignment between difficulty and progression.
While they appreciated challenging content, they expressed concern that materials too advanced or disjointed would hinder long-term acquisition. As Student 18
put it, an ideal textbook should offer “enough time to synthesize the information”
rather than overwhelming students with dense or disconnected vocabulary lists.
Accessible and engaging format
The CHL learners placed considerable value on the usability and visual design of
the textbook. Student 5 noted, “I think the best textbooks are the easiest to understand and most user friendly.” Others pointed to the importance of an engaging
layout. Student 17 found the “dialogue format… more engaging and easier to follow,” while Student 14 suggested integrating “English, Pinyin, and characters” to
accommodate different learning needs. Student 19 proposed interactive features
such as games: “maybe including more games that help one memorize harder
vocabulary and idioms such as bingo.”
In addition, some learners advocated for a hybrid approach that combines the
strengths of existing textbooks and supplementary materials. Student 15 proposed
“a combination of both the textbook and supplementary because the textbook
supplies more common vocabulary while the supplementary provides advanced
ways of saying things.” Student 25 wished for “slightly easier supplementary material style vocabulary, set up in the same way as the textbook.”
Taken together, these learner insights point to the need for a textbook specifically tailored to the CHL population — one that builds on CHL students’ oral
fluency and cultural familiarity while helping them advance in literacy, formal
register, and academic language use. An ideal textbook would be culturally
[16] Han Luo
grounded, lexically rich, formally robust, structurally scaffolded, and pedagogically engaging. By reflecting CHL learners’ linguistic strengths and aspirations,
such a resource would not only improve proficiency but also affirm heritage identity and sustain long-term motivation.
5.4 Research question 4: What kinds of topics are most likely to engage
CHL students?
The CHL learners in this study demonstrated clear preferences for instructional
content that is both personally meaningful and culturally relevant. Their
responses revealed four key thematic categories that characterize engaging topics:
(1) real-life and functional communication, (2) Chinese cultural and historical
content, (3) popular culture and contemporary society, and (4) identity-affirming
and intergenerational themes. These preferences reflect CHL learners’ dual motivations to develop language skills that are immediately useful while also connecting with their heritage in meaningful ways.
Real-life and functional communication
A strong majority of learners expressed interest in topics that would help them
navigate everyday life in Chinese-speaking contexts. These include situations
related to college life, socializing, dining out, and basic navigation. Student 17 provided a representative list: “college life, dining out, meeting new friends, going to
the movies, communicating with Chinese parents.” Similarly, Student 1 emphasized the need for “asking directions, getting around, and everyday conversations.” Others added topics such as “school, interests, travel, food, news, current
events, movies/tv shows” (Student 10) and “shopping for groceries, having conversations about schoolwork” (Student 7).
This emphasis on practical language skills reflects CHL learners’ desire to
achieve functional fluency that allows them to engage in real-world settings without relying on family members or English. As Student 9 explained, “Being able
to have a conversation in China without being viewed as an outsider is my goal.”
This goal was echoed by Student 28, who envisioned using Chinese while living
independently: “The ideal goal is to be self-sufficient when living in China without any help from parents.”
Chinese cultural and historical content
Cultural learning emerges as another strong area of interest. Students expressed
curiosity about both traditional and modern aspects of Chinese culture, including
festivals, food, customs, and historical narratives. Student 12 listed a wide range of
interests: “Chinese culture, Asian-American experiences, modern China, ancient
Material development for Chinese heritage language learners [17]
Chinese tales/legends, Chinese customs/traditions, Chinese sayings, Chinese pop
culture.” Student 8 similarly requested content related to “Chinese traditions, Chinese food, history of the Chinese language, and etymology.”
For many learners, cultural content was not only engaging but necessary for
understanding their linguistic heritage. Student 5 suggested including “cultural
specific topics,” while Student 21 found “topics that deal with Chinese culture
and society” more engaging than those focused solely on grammar or vocabulary.
Several students also proposed incorporating Chinese literature, mythology, and
famous historical events, such as “Chinese history — Cultural Revolution” (Student 26) and “how the Chinese language was developed” (Student 20).
Popular culture and contemporary society
Many of the learners were eager to explore modern Chinese life, especially
through the lens of youth culture and media. Student 3 advocated for content
related to “dating, going out at night, clubbing” and wanted to “dissect current
Chinese songs.” These topics, they argued, would help them better understand the
colloquial speech and cultural references used by peers in China. Student 14 also
expressed interest in “dating, food, college/university life, mythology,” while Student 23 listed “…popular culture, current films and music” as desirable themes.
This interest in popular and contemporary culture often intersected with
learners’ desire to better understand informal registers and colloquial language.
For example, Student 18 hoped the materials could help him “comprehend all the
subtle jokes and sayings my cousins use if I go back to China.” In contrast, Student
24 found materials related to “college, education, work, and restaurants” particularly relevant and reflective of their everyday lives.
Identity-affirming and intergenerational themes
Many CHL learners surveyed were deeply invested in topics that resonate with
their bicultural experiences and allow them to explore questions of identity. Several wanted to learn how to talk about their personal lives in Chinese — topics that
could help bridge communication gaps with family. Student 13 suggested themes
such as “topics that we may discuss with our friends or family members,” including “sharing about our weekends, our classes, school life.” Student 24 highlighted
“family, business situations” as well as “college students who are in China & their
culture.”
Some students called for greater representation of Chinese-American and
Asian-American experiences in the curriculum. Student 12 was among several
who mentioned “Asian-American experiences” as a compelling area for exploration. This reflects a growing desire for curricula that validate learners’ hybrid
identities and connect their personal narratives to broader cultural frameworks.
[18] Han Luo
A few students also recommended incorporating current events and global
perspectives not just for broader awareness, but as tools for strengthening intergenerational and familial connections. Student 16 noted that “understanding current events in China can help me connect with grandparents in China,” while
Student 8 remarked that “the news media about China helps me to have more
topics to talk about with my parents.” These responses reveal that even topics like
news and world affairs can be identity-affirming when framed within the context of intergenerational communication. Rather than viewing such content solely
through the lens of academic or professional development, learners see them as
avenues for fostering meaningful conversations and bridging generational gaps
within their heritage communities.
In essence, CHL learners are not passive recipients of the curriculum — they
are active participants who bring rich cultural backgrounds, personal motivations, and clear learning preferences into the classroom. Thematic analysis of
their responses reveals a desire for content that is practical, culturally grounded,
socially current, and personally resonant. Instructional materials that incorporate
real-life scenarios, cultural depth, pop culture references, and identity-centered
themes are likely to be more engaging and effective. By integrating these learnerinformed topics, educators and curriculum developers can better support CHL
learners in achieving both linguistic proficiency and cultural affirmation. - Discussion
This study aims to explore the perceptions of CHL learners enrolled in a first-year
heritage-track course at a private U.S. university regarding their learning goals,
instructional materials, and preferences for textbook features and classroom topics. The findings offer valuable learner-centered insights that contribute to the
growing body of research on CHL education and have implications for both pedagogy and material development.
Reconnecting with Heritage and identity negotiation
The findings from Research Question 1 underscore the centrality of identity in
CHL learners’ motivations. Many of the participants expressed a desire to reconnect with family and cultural heritage, consistent with previous literature (He,
2006; Lee, 2015). However, a particularly salient and underexplored aspect of this
identity work is learners’ desire to “pass” as native speakers and conceal their
Chinese-American identity when interacting with native speakers. For instance,
students aspired to eliminate American accents and speak in a manner indistinMaterial development for Chinese heritage language learners [19]
guishable from native speakers. This aligns with He’s (2006) argument that identity is a driving force in HL learning but adds nuance by illustrating how some
CHL learners internalize native-speaker norms as benchmarks for legitimacy.
This phenomenon may be interpreted through the lens of linguistic insecurity
and social positioning. It raises questions about the perceived hierarchy between
heritage and native speakers and highlights the need for pedagogical spaces that
affirm bilingual and bicultural identities rather than positioning them as inferior
or incomplete (Leeman & Serafini, 2016).
Speaking as an unexpected priority
Another notable finding from Research Question 1 is that many students, despite
their oral exposure to Mandarin at home, still cited speaking proficiency as a
major learning goal. This counters the commonly held assumption that CHL
learners uniformly possess strong speaking abilities. Many students articulated
a desire to speak more fluently, formally, and confidently in broader contexts
beyond the family domain. These findings support Xiang’s (2016) observation
that while listening may be a strength, speaking skills among CHL learners can be
uneven. This suggests that HL curricula should incorporate structured opportunities for oral practice across diverse communicative contexts.
Textbook limitations and supplementary challenges
Findings from Research Question 2 reveal that while students appreciated the
clarity and structure of Integrated Chinese, they often found it too basic and insufficiently tailored to their heritage backgrounds. This critique resonates with concerns raised in previous studies (Kagan & Dillon, 2008; Luo et al., 2019) that
L2-targeted textbooks do not meet CHL learners’ unique needs. More striking,
however, is the students’ assessment of supplementary materials: though more relevant and aligned with their learning goals, the added content was often deemed
overly difficult.
This tension between relevance and accessibility speaks to the challenge of
scaffolding in CHL instruction. It suggests the need for a gradual, well-paced integration of linguistically rich content, possibly by incorporating previewing strategies, vocabulary recycling, and differentiated pathways. This echoes Liu et al.’s
(2024) recommendation for top-down instructional design that builds complexity without overwhelming learners.
Notably, because Integrated Chinese was originally designed for non-heritage
learners, it is not entirely fair to criticize this textbook for being unable to meet
the needs of heritage learners. Given that a number of textbooks have been devel-
[20] Han Luo
oped specifically for CHL learners in recent years (e.g., Liu et al., 2023), CHL
instructors are encouraged to consider adopting these materials for heritage-track
courses. Such an approach may be more effective than using textbooks for foreign
language learners at an accelerated pace and may also help reduce the additional
workload associated with creating extensive supplementary materials.
Learners’ Vision vs. Teachers’ Vision of an ideal textbook
Research Question 3 explores learner conceptions of an ideal CHL textbook.
When compared with the seven features identified by instructors in Luo et al.
(2019), significant overlap emerges: both groups emphasize the importance of literacy development, register instruction, and engaging cultural content. However,
learners surveyed placed particular emphasis on idioms, real-life application, formal writing models, and user-friendly formatting — suggesting a slightly different
prioritization than their instructors.
For instance, while instructors in Luo et al.’s study stressed flexibility and linguistic scaffolding, CHL learners in this study frequently cited the need for repetition and visual clarity, as well as contextualized examples of formal and idiomatic
language. This difference in emphasis may stem from learners’ firsthand experience of struggling with specific skill gaps — especially in reading and writing
— and their preference for materials that build confidence and competence over
time.
These findings reinforce Liu et al.’s (2024) argument that textbooks should be
cognitively appropriate and designed to engage students’ higher-order thinking.
Materials should also reflect students’ lived experiences, varied proficiencies, and
the desire for formal language acquisition.
Engaging topics and identity-affirming pedagogy
The results of Research Question 4 show that students seek topics that are not
only practical and culturally relevant but also affirming of their bicultural identities. Learners expressed strong interest in real-life scenarios (e.g., travel, dining,
school) as well as deeper cultural and historical topics (e.g., festivals, idioms,
ancient legends). Particularly compelling is their desire to engage with contemporary youth culture in China — such as dating, music, and social norms — in order
to access authentic language and feel connected to modern Chinese society.
Notably, students also valued themes that allow them to articulate their experiences as Chinese-Americans and to strengthen intergenerational communication. These preferences align with Liu et al.’s (2024) call to incorporate learners’
“funds of knowledge” (Moll, 1992) into teaching materials. By integrating students’
Material development for Chinese heritage language learners [21]
personal narratives, identity exploration, and diasporic perspectives, curricular
content can become more inclusive and empowering.
Other emerging implications
Across the four research questions, a recurring theme is the learners’ desire for
materials that reflect their dual linguistic identities and bridge the gap between
informal home language and formal academic or professional registers. This calls
for pedagogical designs that not only build literacy and vocabulary, but also validate the hybrid linguistic repertoires that CHL learners bring into the classroom
(He, 2006; Leeman, 2015).
Moreover, the findings highlight the heterogeneity of CHL learners. Their
language needs, cultural affiliations, and identity orientations vary widely, underscoring Liu et al.’s (2024) argument that CHL learners should not be regarded as
a monolithic group. Material developers must account for such diversity through
modular, adaptable content that provides learners with choice and relevance.
In sum, this study contributes to a more learner-centered understanding of
material development in CHL education. By amplifying student voices, it not only
complements prior research from teacher perspectives but also offers actionable
insights for building inclusive, effective, and engaging resources for this unique
learner population. - Conclusion
This study examined the perspectives of 28 first-year CHL learners enrolled in
a heritage-track Chinese course at a private U.S. university. Through a grounded
theory analysis of these students’ qualitative reflections, four major findings
emerged: CHL learners seek to reconnect with their heritage and improve formal
language skills; they find existing textbooks insufficient and often misaligned
with their needs; they envision ideal textbooks as culturally rich, scaffolded, and
learner-friendly; and they are most engaged by topics that are practical, identityaffirming, and culturally resonant.
The voices of these CHL learners call for a recalibration of pedagogical materials to better suit their complex linguistic profiles and identity needs. Their perspectives suggest a curricular model that transcends basic literacy instruction
— integrating cultural authenticity, formal language development, and engaging,
context-rich content. Future textbook design and curriculum development should
heed CHL learners’ call for a more relevant, challenging, and culturally grounded
learning experience. Incorporating learners’ lived experiences and giving weight
[22] Han Luo
to their voices will be essential for the next generation of CHL pedagogical materials.
Despite its contributions, this study has some limitations. First, the sample
size was relatively small and drawn from a single institution, which may limit
the generalizability of the findings. Additionally, the participants were all enrolled
in the same course, taught by the same instructor, which may have shaped their
experiences in ways not representative of other CHL contexts. The data were
also based on self-reported reflections collected at the end of the semester, and
may be subject to memory bias, social desirability bias, or influenced by students’
immediate emotional responses to the course. Furthermore, although the study
employed grounded theory methods, it was limited to one round of coding and
did not follow up with interviews or classroom observations to triangulate the
findings.
Future research should expand the scope of inquiry by incorporating more
diverse samples across multiple institutions, regions, and instructional contexts.
Longitudinal studies could explore how learners’ needs and perceptions evolve
over time, especially as they progress through different levels of CHL instruction.
Future studies might also investigate the perspectives of different stakeholder
groups — such as instructors, curriculum designers, and textbook authors — in
tandem with learner feedback. Moreover, classroom-based studies that track the
implementation and outcomes of learner-informed materials would provide valuable insights into the efficacy of pedagogical innovations. By building a more comprehensive and inclusive research base, the field of Chinese heritage language
education can move closer to realizing an equitable, responsive, and empowering
curriculum for all learners.
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摘要
本研究探讨了美国一所私立大学中文项目中，28位修读第一学年中文传承语课程的学
生对教学材料的看法。采用扎根理论的方法，分析揭示了四个主要主题：学习者多样
且以身份为导向的学习目标、对现有教学材料的批判性评价、理想教材特征的偏好，
以及他们在课堂主题上的兴趣。研究发现，中文传承语学习者不仅希望与自身的文化
传承建立联系，还希望全面提升语言能力，包括口语表达，并掌握正式语体以拓展学
术与职业机会。尽管他们认可《中文听说读写》在结构上的清晰性，但普遍认为其内
容过于基础、与自身需求不符。相比之下，补充材料更贴合学习目标，却因缺乏有效
支架而被认为过于困难。学习者理想中的教材应包括高级词汇和成语表达、具有丰富
文化内涵的内容以及正式语体，并配备循序渐进且便于使用的设计结构。他们对反映
真实生活场景、传统与当代文化以及强化身份认同的主题尤为感兴趣。这些学习者的
Material development for Chinese heritage language learners [25]
声音凸显出教材改革的必要性，呼吁开发能回应其混合身份和复杂语言背景的教学资
源。本研究强调了在未来教材与课程设计中以学习者为中心的设计理念的重要性。
关键词： 传承语教育，中文传承语学习者，教材开发，教学材料，学生视角
Address for correspondence
Han Luo
Lafayette College
730 High St.
Pardee Hall 410
Easton, PA 18042
United States
luoh@lafayette.edu
Publication history
Date received: 31 March 2025
Date accepted: 5 August 2025
Published online: 8 September 2025